Essay/Term paper: Darwinism: the theory that shook the world

Essay, term paper, research paper:  Science

Darwinism: The Theory That Shook The World


Other than Mendellson and his studies with genetics, Darwin has by far
contributed the most to our modern science. From his theories on variation of
species to his explanation of natural selection Charles Darwin has shocked the
world by proving the world older than previously thought and creatures not
immutable. In this present day these theories are as common belief as a simple
mathematical equation such as two plus two equals four; but in the year eighteen
hundred and fifty nine Darwin not only risked his reputation with these far
fetched findings but also the risk of being excommunicated from the church.
Previous to Darwin the thought had been that the world itself was only a few
hundred years old and that all creatures were made by God in those seven days as
they lived exactly today (Campbell p 421). Aside from past resistance, Darwin
also comes under scrutiny still today as missing fossils which are to have been
the bridge between a two familiar species are not yet found (Hitching p 3).
Whatever the reason of belief or disbelief in Darwin's theories, he astounded
the scientific world as well as the public and was able to convince many in the
presence of a misguided past belief. This fact alone makes him one of the most
important people of science ever.
Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury-Shropshire, England on Feb 12,
1809 (GEA & RBi p 42). He was the fifth child in a wealthy English family with
a history of scientific achievement with his paternal grandfather Erasmus Darwin
who was a physician and a savant in the eighteenth century (GEA & RBi p 42). As
a young boy Darwin already showed signs of his love for nature. When he was not
reading about nature and its quirks he was out in the forest looking for wild
game , fish, and insects (Campbell p 424). His father, although noting his
son's interest in nature, felt that all the discoveries of the natural branch of
science had been accomplished so he sent his son to medical school at Edinburgh
instead (Bowler p 62). While Darwin was there, he could not keep his mind on
his medical studies and decided to go and study at the University of Cambridge
and become a clergyman. It was here that he was to meet two people who would
change his future forever; Adams Sedgwick and John Stevens Henslow. Out of
these two, Henslow turned into his second father and taught him to be meticulous
in his observations of natural phenomena (GEA & RBi p 42). Upon graduating in
1831, Henslow suggested that he go on the Beagle as an unpaid naturalist on the
scientific expedition (GEA & RBi p 43). Darwin gladly took Henslow's advice and
set out on his voyage to South America to analyze and collect data that would
later back up his evolutionary theories (Campbell p 424).
Even as Darwin collected his data pertaining to what would become his
theory on natural selection, many pre-existing views still had a hold on the
scientific world as well as the public. The earliest recorded were those of
Plato and Aristotle. Plato (427-347 BC) believed in two worlds; an illusionary
which was perceived only through our senses and a real world which was ideal and
eternal (Campbell p 422). Aristotle (384-322 BC), on the other hand, believed
in a "scala naturae" in which each being has its own rung on a ladder which was
permanent (Campbell p 422). Also, there were the present religious views that
had to be dealt with as well as the ancient ideals. At that time many believed
that animals and plants did not evolve because they were made holy and immutable
by God on those seven days (GEA & RBi p 43). A person who was widely respected
and also took some beliefs from Aristotle and present religion was Carolus
Linnaeus (1707-1778). He believed species immutable and later became known as
the father of modern taxonomy (Campbell p 422). Perhaps the largest barrier
Darwin had was to convince the present day scientists of his findings in
contrast to their pre-existing theories. The most common of the time was the
catatropist theory. The definition of this theory was that "a violent and
sudden change in the earth" had destroyed all creatures and each time this
happened, God would come back down and recreate all the life in a seperate seven
days (Webster p 131). This theory in itself seemed created for the soul purpose
of covering up the reason for fossils existing and misled thought of the species
being immutable (Campbell p 423).
After Darwin's voyage on the Beagle, he had begun to develop his own
theory of evolution. His personal definition of evolution was "in biology, the
complex of processes by which living organisms originated on earth and have been
diversified and modified through sustained changes in form and function" (JWV p
20). In regards to his research he had not only found evolution in the wild but
in the domesticated sphere as well. Darwin held that all related organisms
descended from a common ancestor and he found examples easily in common life
(GEA & RBi p 43). One of these such examples were the domesticated pigeon.
Darwin studied the skeletal and the live forms of the pigeons he had found. In
doing so, he found them all to be related but for a small change in their
phenotype. Phenotype being defined as follows "the actual appearance of an
organism" (GEA & RBi-2 p 77). This small difference had been procured through
the use of breeding and mutation. Perhaps the most notable would be the number
of feathers in the fantail which ranged from twelve to forty feathers (Darwin p
42). Another example Darwin found in speciation by domesticated breeding were
cows and horses. By the definition of a gene pool, "large random assortment of
genes that may be rearranged", the farmers were able to produce a better breed
of race horse or milk cow by breeding the best he had together (JWV p 21). This
sexual evolution was just seen by the public as a way to produce the necessary
end but Darwin held it as important evidence of evolution accessible for all to
witness. And to back up this finding in the domesticated breeds as well as the
wild he came up with his variability within a species. The definition to
variability within a species held that 1) the offspring resemble the parents ,
but were not identical and 2) some differences in the parents were due solely to
the environment but were often inheritable (JWV p 20). These two statements as
well as the backup with clinical data helped to show that his theory was correct.

Another area of variability was that of species in the wild. Perhaps
Darwin's most famed findings to back his theory are "Darwin's finches". During
his voyage on the Beagle he had observed thirteen different types of finches
(Campbell p 425). These finches were found on seperate Galapagos Islands. Here
each species of finch had at one time migrated to another island. In doing so
the founder effect had been put into action. The founder effect being described
as "when a few individuals of a population migrate and form a new colony having
only a small gene pool causing a new species" (JWV p 23). Due to the diverse
surroundings and limited gene pool the thirteen species had evolved from the
original species that had migrated from the mainland to the islands. Darwin
also observed other animals on these islands that were not found anywhere else
in the world and began to doubt the churches teaching that species were
immutable (Darwin p 29).
The most controversial of Darwin's theory was that of natural selection.
The term evolution was so controversial even Darwin did not use it but the
phrase "origin of species" instead (Darwin p 27). Even though he did not term
it evolution his views were definitely concrete and were laid out in a few
simple sentences. These were the reasons why natural selection was a way of
life and always had been. First, Darwin proposed that food supply was too
little to support the large population thus eliminating those who were not
strong enough to find food and survive. Second, parents adapted to a certain
environment well would pass on favorable traits that would help the next
generation survive, those without the trait would not survive. Third, each
generation would become better adapted and if remaining in the same environment
would become more capable of surviving. Finally, even with all the above
working there were also factors of mutation, genetic drift, and bottle neck
theories which contributed to the survival of the fittest (GEA & RBi p 43).
Mutation being the most effective in changing a species had four factors by
itself: 1) size of a population, 2) the length of a generation's life span, 3)
the degree to which the mutation was favorable, and 4) the rate at which the
same mutation appears in descendants (JWV p 21). Although most mutations are
fatal, they are key in changing the genetic make up of an individual. Genetic
drift is described as when a species for some reason begins to drift apart or
come together to create a new specie or species. This is typically seen in
today's fossil record when a present species is related to an extinct animal.
[see fig. 1] Another of the traits of natural selection is the bottle neck
theory. Here a population has been destroyed to such an extent that only a few
survive. This limited population will recreate a new species based on its
extremely limited gene pool and have a higher chance of carrying a fatal gene.
All these factors working together simultaneously create the phenomena of
natural selection.
Darwin was not going to publish his findings but was forced to by a
young man Alfred Russel Wallace who had come to the same conclusion after twenty
years had passed. Although both scientists names were on the original copies of
the Origin of Species Wallace regarded Darwin as the soul author. Within a year
of writing, Darwin published what would be twenty years of research in 1859.
Although, thoroughly backed up with painstaking research, it was still refereed
to as "the book that shook the world" and in its first day of sales had sold
out (GEA & RBi p 43). The immediate reaction in the science world was one of
disbelief. The leading scientists of the day said that Darwin could not prove
his hypothesis and the concept of variation could not be proved. Darwin was to
be doubted for the next seventy years until the rediscovery of Mendel's pea
plant experiments (GEA & RBi p 43). With these new findings on genetics, many
scientists would take in account Darwin's work. Some of these people were to be
a German zoologist named Ernst Mayr, a botanist G. Ledyard Stebbins, and
paleontologist named George Simpson (JWV p 21).